Mabs were purified with Montage kit Prosep-G (Millipore) for IgG. Experimental serum samples Inactivated AI viruses (Table 1) were emulsified in ISA-70 (SEPPIC, France) adjuvant and injected intramuscularly

to the groups of three weeks old white leghorn chickens (n = 4). The booster was given twice at two-week intervals. Sera were prepared from the blood collected 10 days after 1st injection and 2nd injection. Antibody responses to the homologous strains were evaluated by HI as described below. Groups of mice (n = 4) were injected intramuscularly with different inactivated H7 AIVs (Table 1) individually emulsified in adjuvant (SEPPIC, France). The injections were repeated twice at two-week intervals. In addition, guinea pigs were immunized with inactivated H7N1 (A/Chicken/Malaysia/94). Blood was collected 14 days after QNZ molecular weight the 2nd immunization.

Hemagglutination inhibition assay Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays were performed as described previously [16]. Briefly, Mabs were serially diluted (2 fold) in V-bottom 96-well plates and mixed with 4 HA units of H7 virus. Plates were incubated for 30 min at room temperature, and 1% chicken RBCs were added to each well. The hemagglutination inhibition endpoint was the highest Mab dilution in which agglutination was not observed. Isolation and analysis of escape mutants The epitope recognized by Mab 62 was mapped by characterization of escape selleck compound mutants as described previously [9]. Briefly, H7N1 parental viruses were incubated with an excess of Mab for 1 h and then inoculated into 11 day old embryonated chicken eggs. The eggs were incubated at 37°C for 48 h. Virus was harvested and used for cloning in limiting dilution in embryonated chicken eggs and the escape mutants were plaque purified. The HA gene mutations were then identified by sequencing and comparison with the sequence of the parental virus. Microneutralization assay Neutralization activity of Mab against H7 strains was analyzed by microneutralization

assay as previously described [17]. Briefly, Mab was serially two-fold diluted and incubated with 100 TCID50 of different clades of H7 strains for 1 h at room temperature and plated click here in duplicate onto MDCK cells grown in a 96-well plate. The neutralizing titer was assessed as the highest Mab dilution in which no cytopathic effect was observed by light microscopy. H7 baculovirus production The recombinant baculovirus vector was generated as described previously [18]. The full length HA gene was amplified from H7N7 (A/NL/219/03) reassortant virus in a standard PCR reaction. The amplified HA gene was GW4869 concentration inserted into the shuttle vector pFASTBacHT A (Invitrogen, San Diego, CA, USA) for expression under the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) immediate early (ie1) promotor.

23. www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-173074.html Health Canada: Health Products and Food Branch Inspectorate. Policy on manufacturing and compounding drug products in Canada POL-0051. 2009. http://​www.​hc-sc.​gc.​ca/​dhp-mps/​alt_​formats/​hpfb-dgpsa/​pdf/​compli-conform/​pol_​0051-eng.​pdf. Accessed Jan 2013. 24. United States Food and Drug Administration. Limited FDA Survey of Compounded Drug Products. 2001. http://​www.​fda.​gov/​Drugs/​GuidanceComplian​ceRegulatoryInfo​rmation/​PharmacyCompound​ing/​ucm155725.​htm.

Accessed Mar 2013. 25. US Food and Drug Administration. Pharmacy Compounding. 2006 Limited FDA Survey of Compounded Drug Products. 2012. http://​www.​fda.​gov/​Drugs/​GuidanceComplian​ceRegulatoryInfo​rmation/​PharmacyCompound​ing/​ucm204237.​htm. Accessed Sept 2012. 26. Missouri Board of Pharmacy Compounding Report. FY2006–2009. http://​pr.​mo.​gov/​pharmacists-compounding.​asp. see more Accessed Mar 2013. 27. Sasich LD, Sukkari SR. Unknown risks of pharmacy-compounded drugs. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2008;108(2):86.PubMed 28. Texas State Board of Pharmacy, Business Meeting Minutes, November 9, 2010, Report on TSBP Sampling of Compounded Products,

Tab 24. 2010. http://​www.​tsbp.​state.​tx.​us/​files_​pdf/​BN/​Nov10/​Additions/​Tab24_​Compounded%20​Sample%20​Testing.​pdf. Accessed Nov 2012. 29. Azarnoff DL, Lee JC, Lee C, et al. Quality of extemporaneously compounded nitroglycerin ointment. Dis Colon Rectum. 2007;50(4):509–16.PubMedCrossRef 30. Green DM, Jones AC, Brain KR. Content variability of active drug substance in compounded oral 3,4-diaminopyridine products. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2012;37(1):53–7.PubMedCrossRef 31. Goldman MP. Sodium tetradecyl sulfate for sclerotherapy treatment of veins: is compounding pharmacy solution safe?

Dermatol Surg. 2004;30(12 Pt 1):1454–6; discussion 1456. 32. Mahaguna pheromone V, McDermott JM, Zhang F, et al. Investigation of product quality between extemporaneously compounded progesterone vaginal suppositories and an approved progesterone vaginal gel. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2004;30(10):1069–78.PubMedCrossRef 33. Chollet JL, Jozwiakowski MJ. Quality investigation of hydroxyprogesterone caproate active pharmaceutical ingredient and injection. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2012;38(5):540–9.PubMedCrossRef 34. United States Food and Drug Adminstration. Questions and Answers on Updated FDA Statement on Compounded Versions of hydroxyprogesterone caproate (the active ingredient in Makena). 2012. http://​www.​fda.​gov/​newsevents/​newsroom/​pressannouncemen​ts/​ucm310215.​htm. Accessed Mar 2013. 35. Heinrich J. GAO testimony: Federal and State Role in Pharmacy Compounding and Reconstitution: Exploring the Right Mix to Protect Patients: Hearing on Oversight click here Before the Senate Comm. on Health, Education, Labor, & Pensions, 108th Cong. 2003. http://​gao.​gov/​assets/​120/​110456.​pdf. Accessed Mar 2013. 36. Civen R, Vugia DJ, Alexander R, et al. Outbreak of Serratia marcescens infections following injection of betamethasone compounded at a community pharmacy.

Bars indicate mean titers ± SD for 3 replicates and those labeled with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05) while those with the same letter are not (p > 0.05). Apinductokine activitiy removed by Proteinase-K treatment Proteinase-K treatment of LXH254 5 kDa membrane filtrates from C6/36 G418 price cultures acutely infected with DEN-2 removed their ability to induce apoptosis in C6/36 cells persistently infected with DEN-2 (Figure 5). As with viprolaxikine, apinductokine inactivation occurred whether proteinase-K activity

was removed from the treated filtrate by heating plus 5 kDa filtration or by 5 kDa filtration only. These tests indicated that apinductokine was also a small polypeptide. Figure 5 Photomicrographs showing

removal AICAR of apoptosis induction activity by proteinase K treatment. A = Untreated, cells persistently infected with DEN-2 (cf Fig. 3A); B = Positive immunofluorescence for apoptosis marker (green) in cells persistently infected with DEN-2 and exposed to untreated 5 kDa filtrate from C6/36 cells acutely-infected with DEN-2; C = As in B, but with proteinase-K treatment and showing little positive fluorescence (green) for the apoptosis marker. Conclusion In conclusion, this communication has revealed that extracts from C6/36 cell cultures infected with Dengue

virus contain previously unknown cytokine-like substances that can alter the host insect cell response to Dengue virus. It is the first report of an antiviral substance induced in insect cells by infection with Buspirone HCl a virus in the family Flaviviridae. The fact that the cell sources and activities of the substances differed and that their activities were removed by treatment with proteinase-K suggested that at least two different, low molecular-weight polypeptides were responsible, one for protection of naïve cells against DEN-2 infection and the other for induction of apoptosis in C6/36 cells persistently infected with DEN-2. Further work is needed to characterize these cytokine-like substances (including molecular structure) to allow comparison with other low molecular weight polypeptides, to study their mechanism of action and to test their range of activities with several viruses and cell types. Methods Insect cell lines and viral inoculum Aedes albopictus C6/36 cells (a single cell-type clone obtained from the American Type Culture Collection under catalogue number CRL-1660) were grown in Leibovitz’s (L-15) medium containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS), 10% tryptose phosphate broth (TPB) and 1.2% antibiotic (Penicillin G and Streptomycin).

6): 5 (1880) and the genus has 362 epithets and seriously needs a modern treatment. Jami et al. (2012) described two new species

in the genus. There may be some confusion over the generic type which is listed under Diplodia in Index Fungorum and does not appear www.selleckchem.com/products/Y-27632.html to have been recently treated or have sequence data. Endomelanconiopsis E.I. Rojas & Samuels, Mycologia 100: 770 (2008) Notes: This new genus was described as a distinct lineage of Botryosphaeriaceae based on multigene analysis of LSU, ITS and EF1-α. The taxon was isolated as an endophyte from leaves of Theobroma cacao and a second species combined Endomelanconium microsporum Verkley & van der Aa (Rojas et al. 2008). The genus is distinct in having small brown ellipsoidal to Cl-amidine mw limoniform conidia which are dark brown with a single longitudinal slit three-quarters of the Dasatinib price length of the conidia when mature and hyaline microconidia. Macrophomina Petr., Ann. Mycol. 21: 314 (1923) Notes: Based on eight isolates of Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. This is a well-supported genus in Botryosphaeriaceae

(Crous et al. 2006, Fig. 1 this study). The generic type is Macrophomina philippinensis Petr. and has not been subjected to phylogenetic study. The genus has seven epithets and needs a modern treatment. Microdiplodia Allesch., Rabenh. Krypt.-Fl., Edn 2 1(7): 78 (1901) [1903] Possible synonyms Microbotryodiplodia Sousa da Câmara, Agron. Lusit. 13: 206 (1951) Syndiplodia Peyronel, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, Ser. 2 66(10): 35 (1915) Notes: This genus is likely to be polyphyletic; the generic type Microdiplodia conigena Allesch. is linked to Botryosphaeriaceae in Index Fungorum. With 382 epithets this genus needs a modern treatment. Neoscytalidium Crous & Slippers, Stud. Mycol. 55: 244 (2006) Notes: This is a well supported genus which has two species (Crous et al. 2006, Fig. 1 this paper) and a “Scytalidium”-like

synanamorph (Pavlic et al. 2008; Madrid et al. 2009). Pseudofusicoccum Mohali, Slippers & M.J. Wingf., Stud. Mycol. 55: 249 (2006) Notes: This is a well-supported genus in Botryosphaeriaceae with Carbohydrate six species (Crous et al. 2006, Pavlic et al. 2008, Fig. 1 this paper). Tiarosporella Höhn., Mitt. Bot. Inst. Tech. Hochsch. Wien 1(3): 82 (1924) Notes: Jami et al. (2012) described one new species of Tiarosporella which is resolved in Botryosphaeriaceae. The generic type Tiarosporella paludosa (Sacc. & Fiori ex P. Syd.) Höhn. is, however, listed as an asexual state of Darkera (Helotiales) in Index Fungorum; and thus the four Tiarosporella species (Jami et al. 2012) in Botryosphaeriaceae may need a new genus to accommodate them depending on the placement of Tiarosporella paludosa. Thyrostroma Höhn., Sber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-naturw. Kl., Abt. 1 120: 472 [94 repr.] (1911) Possible synonyms Thyrostromella Syd., Ann. Mycol. 22: 406 (1924) Wilsonomyces Adask., J.M. Ogawa & E.E. Butler, Mycotaxon 37: 283 (1990) Notes: This genus comprises 22 epithets mostly linked to Dothidotthia.

[15] Randomized 16 untrained subjects N/R 1000 mg – ↑↓ N/R ↑ Improved exercise performance; ↓ Impaired exercise performance; ↑↓ Partial

result; ↔ No results on exercise performance; IU – International Units; N/R – not reported. In general, it was observed that there are controversial results about antioxidant supplementation during high-intensity exercise. According to two studies evaluated [3, 7], the placebo group presented significant better physical performance, fatigue resistance and antioxidant protection when compared to the supplemented groups. In contrast, Gauche et al. [9] and Louis et al. [12] evaluated https://www.selleckchem.com/products/yap-tead-inhibitor-1-peptide-17.html the effects of vitamin and mineral supplementation on muscle activity of athletes and observed that dietary supplementation provided a slight advantage over the placebo group in maximum voluntary muscle contraction after high-intensity exercise. This small advantage in the supplemented group compared to the placebo group was sufficient for the authors to consider the antioxidant supplementation as an ergogenic aid. Regarding the other studies, no differences were

found between the groups. Sample characteristics The subjects included in the studies presented different metabolic and body composition patterns. It is known that untrained subjects are more responsive to an exercise bout and, consequently, much more susceptible to suffer cellular damage from oxidative stress than trained individuals. For example, muscle damage caused by oxidative stress, in general, is more pronounced in untrained individuals [16]. Another point to enough be considered LY2228820 molecular weight is the sample size of the studies. It was observed that the number of individuals that comprise the groups used in the studies listed in Table 1 is smaller than those in Table 2. This can be partially justified by the difficulty of recruiting athletes to be volunteers. Consequently, the statistical power and the effect size of such data can be compromised and should be carefully interpreted. Dietary control Parallel to vitamin supplementation, it was observed that several studies did not perform dietary control

of the subjects [3] or performed an inadequate control [9–12] to assess the possible interference of diet on the outcome. The dietary control is quite important since some vitamins and minerals may compete in terms of absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Thus, the absence or inadequate dietary control can be considered a bias of the published studies. Tauler et al. [6] and Yfanti et al. [5, 14] performed dietary control through food Epigenetics inhibitor records before and after the intervention. Gomez-Cabrera et al. [7] instructed the subjects to repeat the diet in the day before the exercise test in the pre- and post-supplementation periods. Only in the study of Bloomer et al. [13] dietary control was performed through food records. The variables analyzed were: total caloric value of the meals, amount of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids and of vitamins A, C and E.

The significance of the variables was tested with a Monte Carlo simulation, run with 499 iterations. The software used was CANOCO 4.5 (Braak and Smilauer 1998). How much individual species were associated with a site ‘type’ was

tested with indicator species analysis (IndVal) (Dufrene and Legendre 1997). This analysis gives a value of 100 for a perfect indicator which means a species that occur on all sites with in a category (type) and not on any other site. Bad indicators get a value near 0. With 15,999 permutations in a Monte Carlo test the statistical significance of the indicator Olaparib nmr values were calculated under the null hypothesis that the indicator value is not larger than would be expected by chance. Species present on four or more sites (n = 164) were analysed. PcOrd 6.0 was used for the calculations. Results In total 14,460 individuals of 323 saproxylic beetle species were found (Table 2). Of these, 56 were classified as living in hollows, and 259 as living in wood and bark. The eight remaining species live in sap-runs, but this category had too few species to allow further statistical analyses. Of all saproxylic species, 50 were red-listed (Table 2). Table 2 The total material of saproxylic beetles collected in the study Variable, species category All saproxylic Hollows Wood and bark

Sap-runs INCB018424 purchase No. of individuals, all species 14,460 5,352 8,862 246 No. of species, all species 323 56 259 8 No. of individuals, red-listed species 1,429 331 1,098 0 No. of species, red-listed species 50 17 33 0 Number of

species ‘Open’ sites had the highest average number of species per site for all combinations of red-listed and selleck chemical non-red-listed species and substrate associations (Fig. 3). However, it was significantly higher than another category ‘Park’ only when “all saproxylic species” and “all wood and bark species” were compared (Fig. 3a, c; Table 3). Regarding species associated with hollows and red-listed species, the number of species in ‘Park’ was intermediate between ‘Open’ and ‘Re-grown’ sites, although these differences were not statistically significant (Fig. 3b, d–f; Table 3). Fig. 3 The average number of beetle species in the three stand types under comparison: a all saproxylic species, b species living in this website hollows, c species living in wood and bark, d all red-listed saproxylic species, e red-listed species in hollows, f red-listed species in wood and bark. Significant differences were found in (a) and (c) (see Table 3). Number of sites were: ‘Open’ n = 8, ‘Re-grown’ n = 11, ‘Park’ n = 8 Table 3 P values for each variable as tested in the final multiple regression models with the number of species per site as the dependent variable. The direction of the significant relationships are shown as (−) or (+) or for the variable ‘type’ in Fig. 3 All saproxylic species Variable All species Hollows Wood and bark Type 0.023 0.18 0.014 RT90N 0.008 (−) 0.

The number below each of the proteases in larger Regorafenib solubility dmso font is the calculated pI of the respective mature protease. Table 1 Identity and similarity matrix for Bacteroides C10 proteases   SpeB Bfp1 Bfp2 Bfp3 Bfp4 BtpA BtpB BtpC BtpZ SpeB   21.6 a 18.0 22.6 23.3 22.6 20.0 21.6 21.1 Bfp1 43.0 b

  22.4 25.1 21.1 22.8 21.7 19.4 19.3 Bfp2 35.1 38.6   20.3 22.9 26.5 20.2 22.5 18.3 Bfp3 42.2 46.5 40.0   29.0 27.6 23.5 25.2 21.0 Bfp4 43.5 44.4 41.2 49.1   27.4 22.7 22.4 22.3 BtpA 42.3 45.8 44.1 49.8 49.3   22.4 21.9 22.8 BtpB 38.4 38.4 40.4 39.9 42.6 39.9   54.3 27.7 BtpC 38.4 39.0 41.9 43.6 44.5 40.6 72.5   29.2 BtpZ 41.3 40.6 41.2 41.5 45.4 42.3 47.3 47.7   a Numbers in bold indicate percentage identity. b Numbers in italics indicate percentage similarity.

Figure 2 Sequence relationship for C10 proteases from B. fragilis , B. thetaiotaomicron and S. pyogenes . (a) Cladogram constructed for C10 protease sequences. (b) Amino acid sequence alignment of Btps from B. thetaiotaomicron with catalytic residues in SpeB. The four predicted proteases, BtpA, BtpB, BtpC Selleck BI 10773 and BtpZ, had deduced molecular mass values of 48714 Da, 52555 Da, 51669 Da and 47549 Da respectively, making them significantly larger molecules than SpeB (43174 Da). Similar to the Bfp enzymes, all four predicted proteases in B. thetaiotaomicron included an amino-terminal export signal with a cleavage site for signal peptidase II, suggesting they are lipoproteins. These leader peptides spanned residues 1–17 for BtpA, BtpB and BtpC and residues 1–19 for BtpZ. Proteases are typically expressed with a propeptide which promotes proper folding, and prevents PF299804 molecular weight inappropriate proteolytic activity. Guided by sequence comparisons with SpeB, all Btp proteins included primary sequence consistent with an N-terminal propeptide (residues 18–154, 18–201, 18–196 and 20–159 for BtpA, BtpB, BtpC and BtpZ respectively, and indicated in Figure 1). Also of note is the acidic nature of the clustered Fenbendazole gene products BtpB, BtpC and BtpZ with pI values of 5.25, 5.05 and 4.80 for the predicted mature form of the proteins. This contrasts

with the basic values of 9.22 for BtpA and 8.49 for SpeB. Sequence alignment and secondary structure predictions for the predicted proteins (BtpA, BtpB, BtpC and BtpZ) with the B. fragilis and S. pyogenes orthologues supports the idea that these proteases adopt a papain-like fold (data not shown). The catalytic Cys and His residues were conserved in BtpA, BtpB and BtpC (Figure 2(b)), though interestingly, the catalytic Cys residues was not preserved in BtpZ. As noted above, co-expression with small, genetically linked protease inhibitors has emerged as a common theme for bacterial papain-like proteases [9, 20, 22]. Three candidate inhibitor genes were identified in open reading frames (ORFs) adjacent to the btp genes in B.

J Control Release 2004, 98:415–426.CrossRef 10. Batrakova EV, Kabanov AV: Pluronic block copolymers: evolution of drug delivery concept from inert nanocarriers to biological response

modifiers. J Control Release 2008, 130:98–106.CrossRef 11. Huh KM, Min HS, Lee SC, Lee HJ, Kim S, Park K: A new hydrotropic block copolymer C59 wnt research buy micelle system for aqueous solubilization of paclitaxel. J Control Release 2008, 126:122–129.CrossRef AZD1480 solubility dmso 12. Bae Y Y, Kataoka K K: Intelligent polymeric micelles from functional poly(ethyleneglycol)-poly(amino acid) block copolymers. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2009, 61:768–784.CrossRef 13. Bowe CL, Mokhtarzadeh L, Venkatesen P, Babu S, Axelrod HR, Sofia MJ, Kakarla R, Chan TY, Kim JS, Lee HJ, Amidon GL, Choe SY, Walker S, Kahne D: Design of compounds that increase Selleckchem Momelotinib the absorption of polar molecules. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:12218–12223.CrossRef 14. Posa M, Guzsvany V, Csanadi J, Kevresan S, Kuhajda K: Formation of

hydrogen-bonded complexes between bile acids and lidocaine in the lidocaine transfer from an aqueous phase to chloroform. Eur J Pharm Sci 2008, 34:281–292.CrossRef 15. Boussif O, Lezoualc’h F, Zanta MA, Mergny MD, Scherman D, Demeneix B, Behr JP: A versatile vector for gene and oligonucleotide transfer into cells in culture and in vivo: polyethylenimine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995, 92:7297–7301.CrossRef 16. Brunner S, Furtbauer E, Sauer T, Kursa M, Wagner E: Overcoming the nuclear barrier: cell cycle independent nonviral gene transfer with linear polyethylenimine or electroporation. Mol Ther 2002, 5:80–86.CrossRef 17. Pavia DL, Lampman GM, Kriz GS: Infrared Spectroscopy: Survey of the Important Functional Groups with Examples. Introduction to Spectroscopy. 2nd edition. Saunders, Philadelphia; 1996:69. 18. Zhang W, Shi Y, Chen Y, Hao J, Sha X, Fang X: The potential of Pluronic polymeric micelles encapsulated with paclitaxel for the treatment of melanoma using subcutaneous and pulmonary metastatic mice models. Biomaterials 2011, 32:5934–5944.CrossRef 19. Letchford K, Helen B: A review of the formation

and classification of amphiphilic block copolymer nanoparticulate structures: Amino acid micelles, nanospheres, nanocapsules and polymersomes. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2007, 65:259–269.CrossRef 20. Gao ZG, Fain HD, Rapoport N: Controlled and targeted tumor chemotherapy by micellar-encapsulated drug and ultrasound. J Control Release 2005, 102:203–222.CrossRef 21. Torchilin VP: PEG-based micelles as carriers of contrast agents for different imaging modalities. Adv Drug Deliver Rev 2002, 54:235–252.CrossRef 22. Tan H, Zhang Y, Wang M, Zhang Z, Zhang X, Yong AM, Wong SY, Chang AY, Chen Z, Li X, Choolani M, Wang J: Silica-shell cross-linked micelles encapsulating fluorescent conjugated polymers for targeted cellular imaging. Biomaterials 2012, 33:237–246.CrossRef 23.

The incomplete utilization of crude glycerol and the inhibition of 1,3-PD production in Selleckchem RAD001 fed-batch fermentation GKT137831 mouse in this work resulted probably from the accumulation of toxic by-products generated during 1,3-PD synthesis, such as butyric (14–20 g/L), lactic (16–17 g/L), and acetic (8–11 g/L) acids. Similar findings were

presented by Biebl [39], who noted that 19 g/L of butyric acid and 27 g/L of acetic acid inhibited the production of 1,3-PD by C. butyricum. Moreover, the addition of new portions of crude glycerol reduced the metabolic activity of the bacteria (Figure 2b) by increasing the osmotic pressure and introducing impurities contained in crude glycerol. That substrate may carry substances inhibiting the growth and metabolism of microorganisms: sodium salts,

heavy metal ions, soaps, methanol, and free fatty acids (linolenic, RO4929097 solubility dmso stearic, palmitic, oleic and linoleic) [40, 41]. Venkataramanan et al. [41] analyzed the influence of impurities contained in crude glycerol such as methanol, salts and fatty acids on the growth and metabolism of C. pasteurianum ATCC 6013, responsible for synthesizing butanol and 1,3-PD. They found that fatty acids (mainly linoleic acid) had the most adverse impact on the utilization of glycerol by Clostridium bacteria. These acids have been reported to significantly diminish cell viability [42]. Studies similar to those of Venkataramanan et al. [41] were performed by Chatzifragkou et al. [40]. When oleic acid was added to the growth medium at 2% (w/w of glycerol), a total preclusion of the strain was observed. In order to investigate whether the nature of oleic acid itself or the presence of the double bond induced inhibition, stearic acid was added into the medium at the same concentration (2%, w/w, of glycerol).

No inhibitory effect was observed, suggesting that the presence of the double bond played a key role in the growth of the microorganisms. Also salts are considered to be toxic components of crude glycerol [40, 41]. Monovalent salts have been shown to negatively affect the cell membrane by reducing the van der Waals Niclosamide forces between the lipid tails within it [43]. In this work glycerol contained 0.6 g/L of sodium chloride. The concentration of sodium ions increased during fed-batch fermentation as the second portion of contaminated glycerol was added. That did not carry any complex nutrients, which probably further limited the metabolic activity of the bacteria and caused incomplete substrate utilization. Similar observations were made by Dietz and Zeng [44]. Hirschmann et al. [45] achieved a concentration of 100 g/L with the use of Clostridium but the feeding contained 40 g/L yeast extract apart from crude glycerol. Additionally, NaOH was used to regulate pH. Growth of C.

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