Methods: We present a photographic case series of 8 paediatric pa

Methods: We present a photographic case series of 8 paediatric patients with PD exit site infections and/or over-granulation successfully treated with topical medical grade honey in place of topical antibiotic mupirocin, accompanied

by a literature review of medical honey for the treatment of paediatric wounds. Results: Improvement was observed in all cases, assessed by modified Twardowski criteria, from a median score of 3 (‘acute infection’) to a median score of 1 (‘good’). Conclusions: Medical grade honey is the first line prophylactic exit-site ointment in peritoneal dialysis exit-sites at our institution. We are increasingly turning to honey to salvage infected exit sites threatening the need for removal, with Ibrutinib much success. Increasing case reports are suggesting improvement in infected and poorly healing wounds in children with complex medical conditions. 253 PROTEINURIA IN DECEASED KIDNEY DONORS. DOES IT INFLUENCE RECIPIENT OUTCOME? T YING1, K POLKINGHORNE1,2,

W MULLEY2, H OPDAM3, J KANELLIS1,2 Y-27632 nmr 1Department of Nephrology, Monash Health, Clayton, Victoria; 2Monash University Department of Medicine, Clayton, Victoria; 3Donatelife Victoria, Carlton, Australia Aim: To determine whether the detection of proteinuria in deceased donors influences recipient outcomes. Background: Proteinuria is common in patients with critical illness. The effect of pre-donation proteinuria in deceased donors on recipient outcomes is unknown. DonateLife Victoria began collecting proteinuria data on most donors after 04/2011. This was driven by a demand for this information from transplanting

units due to an increase in marginal donors being offered. Methods: Victorian deceased kidney donors accepted by our institution from 04/2011–12/2012 and associated recipient outcomes were reviewed. Proteinuria was defined as urine protein/creatinine ratio (UPCR) ≥45 mg/mmol based on UK CKD guidelines. DonateLife recorded UPCR in 66/72 cases. We assessed whether donor proteinuria was associated with donor factors (age, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease) or recipient Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase outcomes including 12mth graft function. Results: Two donors and recipients were excluded from analysis because of early graft loss. 26/64 (40.6%) donors had proteinuria. Proteinuria was not associated with donor age, hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular or cerebrovascular disease, cardiac or brain death, or delayed graft function requiring dialysis. Proteinuria was associated with reduced early graft function (day 7 recipient eGFR with donor proteinuria vs no proteinuria: 23 ± 19 vs 36 ± 24 mL/min; P = 0.03). There was no association with function at later time points (12mth recipient eGFR with donor proteinuria vs no proteinuria: 50 ± 16 vs 57 ± 21 mL/min; P = 0.16).

While only interactions between these antifungals and P-gp or the

While only interactions between these antifungals and P-gp or the OATPs have been described,

the role of other transport proteins in antifungal–drug interactions will likely be realised as our understanding of other transport proteins continues to evolve. Antifungal–drug interactions that interfere with active transport of other medicines are summarised in Table 2. Itraconazole is a substrate and potent inhibitor of P-gp, and produces clinically relevant interactions with digoxin and the vinca alkaloids (vincristine, vinblastine, etc.) via transport protein-mediated processes. Digoxin undergoes no appreciable CYP-mediated metabolism. Instead, the drug is renally eliminated as unchanged drug, predominately Dorsomorphin chemical structure through P-gp-mediated selleck products tubular secretion.138 P-gp inhibition by itraconazole reduces digoxin renal clearance to nearly 20%, which significantly increases digoxin serum concentrations, exposure and the potential for toxicity. A reduction in the digoxin dose of up to 75% is required to manage this interaction.139 In contrast, voriconazole is not a P-gp inhibitor and it does not affect the steady-state pharmacokinetics of digoxin.140 CYP3A4 and P-gp possess overlapping substrate affinities making it difficult to separate their respective contributions in a given interaction. Nonetheless, inhibiting both proteins can produce significant drug interactions,

as exemplified by the interaction between itraconazole and vincristine. Itraconazole reduces CYP3A4 metabolism and P-gp efflux of vincristine. The resulting accumulation of vincristine produces neurological toxicities (seizures, paraesthesia, sensory deficits, muscle weakness, neuropathy), gastrointestinal disturbances (abdominal pain/distention,

constipation, ileus) hyponatraemia and SIADH.141 Itraconazole also interacts to Farnesyltransferase a similar degree with vinblastine.142 A similar interaction between posaconazole and vincristine has been reported.143,144 Although there are no data from rigorously controlled studies, voriconazole is believed to interact with vincristine by inhibiting its CYP-mediated metabolism rather than its P-gp mediated transport.145 Due to the severity of the interaction between the vinca alkaloids and itraconazole or posaconazole, and the potential interaction between vincristine and voriconazole, the azoles should not be administered to patients receiving or in need of vincristine or vinblastine containing regimens. If the combination is used, the interaction should be managed by discontinuing the azole.141 Caspofungin is not a CYP substrate or inhibitor. Although caspofungin weakly inhibits P-gp and moderately inhibits several transport proteins in vitro, the inhibitory concentrations are well in excess of those achieved clinically.6 Thus, it is unlikely that this compound inhibits the function of most transport proteins in vivo.6 Therefore, caspofungin, like other echinocandins, interacts with few other medicines.

Although D/P Cr levels at 6 months after the therapy were signifi

Although D/P Cr levels at 6 months after the therapy were significantly lower than those at the initiation of the therapy (0.68 ± 0.10 to 0.62 ± 0.10), D/P Cr levels at 18 months after the therapy were aggravated. Conclusion: It appears that the combination therapy with PD and HD improves Hb levels Mitomycin C and cardiac function because of adjusting

body fluid status. It was indicated that the peritoneal function at 6 months after the therapy may be improved, but that at over 18 months after the therapy may be aggravated. Therefore, the combination therapy is useful for a lifestyle viewpoint of patients at the transitioned period of PD to HD with end-stage kidney disease. LAI XUELI, CHEN WEI, LI JUAN, BIAN XIAOLU, WANG HAIYAN, GUO ZHIYONG Department of Nephrology, Changhai Hospital

Introduction: It is known that sleep disturbance is associated with quality of life and all cause mortality in end stage renal disease population. However, limited researches focused on biomarkers of daytime sleepiness, especially excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. This study aims to explore the metabolic signatures of EDS cases in PD population. Methods: A cross-sectional study collected fast serum find more from no-diabetic continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) patients in a single centre from Feb 2013 to June 2013. A validated Chinese version of Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), self-administered questionnaires for sleep quality evaluation was performed. EDS group was defined as ESS ≥ 9. Meanwhile the PD Kt/V, residual renal function (RRF) and peritoneal equilibration test were recorded. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography

(UPLC) coupled with Q-TOF mass spectrometry were conducted to explore the metabolic profile in serum sample. After raw data acquisition and transformation by Agilent Masshunter Qualitative Analysis software, Mann-Whitney U Test Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) and fold change analysis were performed to find the feature difference. Finally the different metabolites were defined by on-line software. Results: Eighteen (male/female, 10/8; age, 61.4 ± 18.1 years) PD patients with ESS ≥ 9 were assigned into EDS group, while 18 selected gender matched patients (age, 56.9 ± 12.9 years) were defined non-EDS group. Changes of metabolites with significant difference between groups can be classified into three metabolic pathways. They were amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and lipid metabolism. (Table 1). Scores of principal components between groups were illustrated in a 3D PCA plots. (Figure 1). Conclusion: Present study provided potential application of metabonomics in early diagnosis and new insight into mechanism of EDS in peritoneal dialysis patients.

Control antibodies included Rat IgG2a isotype control mAb (eBiosc

Control antibodies included Rat IgG2a isotype control mAb (eBioscience), mouse anti-Border disease virus p125/p80 mAb VPM21 and purified rabbit immunoglobulin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), for rat, mouse and rabbit primary antibodies, respectively. All antibodies were diluted in PBS/T80 containing 10% NGS. Slides Tanespimycin molecular weight were washed twice in PBS, and the appropriate secondary antibody (peroxidase-labelled anti-mouse or anti-rabbit EnVision™+ reagent, Dako) was applied to sections for 30 min at RT. After a final PBS wash, sections were incubated with 3,3′-diaminobenzidine (DAB) for 7·5 min at RT, washed in distilled water, counterstained

with haematoxylin, dehydrated and mounted in Shandon synthetic mountant (Thermo Scientific). Each nodule was scanned under the light microscope. The initial scanning was performed with a wide-angle lens at low power (×20), and the following data were recorded: the predominant inflammatory cell type, the distribution of the cell infiltrate (diffuse or focal/multifocal) and the location of the infiltrate within the nodule (peripheral, central

or both). CD3+ and Pax5+ cells tended to occur in a focal/multifocal distribution pattern in the sections, and the foci of CD3+ and Pax5+ cells were counted in the most active ×20 field (the field with the highest number of foci). CD3+ and Pax5+ infiltrates were subjectively scored 0–3 (Table 1). MAC387+ infiltrates

were also scored 0–3; however, MAC387+ cells occurred more diffusely in sections, either evenly distributed or in patches, and therefore, the scoring system was slightly different Dabrafenib supplier (Table 2). Numbers of FoxP3+ cells were counted in 10 nonoverlapping ×400 fields (five peripheral and five central fields per oesophageal nodule using a 0·0625 mm2 graticule). In the normal oesophagus control group and lymph nodes, five nonoverlapping ×400 fields were counted. Counting was confined to CD3+ areas. Statistical analyses were performed with GraphPad Prism (GraphPad Software, Inc. CA, USA). The difference in prevalence and distribution ADAM7 of the different proportions of cell types was tested using the chi-square test. The differences between the scores of the different types of infiltrate were tested for significance between all groups using a Kruskal–Wallis test, followed by Dunn’s post hoc test. P values of <0·05 were considered significant. Myeloid cells predominated in 70% of cases, while T cells predominated in 23% of cases. In the remaining 7% of cases, the number of T cells and myeloid cells was approximately equal. There was no difference in the proportion of myeloid and T cells between the neoplastic and non-neoplastic groups (P = 0·27). When cells were present in normal oesophageal sections, they were diffusely scattered and myeloid and T cells tended to occur in equal proportions (Table 3).

Methods: We

analyzed

Methods: We

analyzed check details the urinary soluble Klotho levels in a cohort of 161 patients with stage 1–5 CKD and assessed the relationships between the urinary Klotho-to-creatinine ratio (Klotho/Cr), proteinuria and the kidney function. The patients were prospectively followed for two years to monitor for doubling of the baseline serum creatinine concentration and the initiation of renal replacement therapy. Results: Median urinary Klotho/Cr level was 0.35 μg/gCr (0.03–1.64) at baseline. The urinary Klotho/Cr level was positively correlated with eGFR and proteinuria and negatively correlated with changes in proteinuria during the follow-up period. The 117 patients followed for two years were categorized into two groups according to the baseline median urinary Klotho value. The 23 patients had progressed to renal end point. Renal survival was significantly lower in the patients with a urinary Klotho/Cr

ratio of ≤0.321 μg/gCr than in those with a urinary Klotho/Cr ratio of >0.321 μg/gCr (p = 0.0398). A Cox regression analysis adjusted MK-8669 manufacturer for age, gender, hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, eGFR, proteinuria, hemoglobin, phosphate, fibroblast growth factor 23 and renin-angiotensin system blockade showed that a urinary Klotho/Cr ratio of >0.321 was significantly associated with a reduced risk for the renal end point. The adjusted odds ratio for a urinary Klotho/Cr ratio of >0.321 was 0.59 (95% confidential interval: 0.35–0.96; p = 0.0334). Conclusion: In this study, lower levels of urinary Klotho were significantly associated with renal outcomes, suggesting that a lower urinary Klotho level can serve as a novel biomarker for CKD progression. SAXENA ANITA, GUPTA Montelukast Sodium AMIT, SHARMA RAJKUMAR Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow Introduction: Bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA) a simple noninvasive, bedside method for estimation of water

compartments which can be used in clinical settings. Study was undertaken to evaluate applicability of BIA as a screening tool for presence of kidney disease in general population by estimating body water compartments, creatinine clearance and glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Material and Methods: A cross-sectional non-hospital based study on randomly selected 52 subjects from general population. Maltron BIOSCAN analyzer 915/916 was used for evaluating water cpmpartments, creatinine clearance and GFR. Biochemical tests included hemoglobin, blood sugar random, liver function test (Bilirubin, SGPT, SGOT and Alkaline phosphatase), renal function test (serum creatinine and BUN), uric acid and urine microscopy. Blood pressure was checked.Total body water (TBW) derived using BIA was validated against Hume etal’s equations for estimating TBW. Results: Out of 52 subjects 24 (46.

This indicates that these three amino acids of G protein are impo

This indicates that these three amino acids of G protein are important for pathogenicity of the Nishigahara strain. In order to obtain insights into the mechanism by which these amino acids affect pathogenicity, in this study spread of viral infection and apoptosis-inducing ability of the attenuated RC-HL strain and the virulent R(G 242/255/268) strain were compared. RC-HL infection spread less efficiently in the mouse brain than did R(G 242/255/268) infection. However, the apoptosis-inducing abilities of both www.selleckchem.com/products/fg-4592.html viruses

were almost identical, as shown by both in vitro and in vivo experiments. It was demonstrated that cell-to-cell spread of RC-HL strain was less efficient than that of R(G 242/255/268) strain in mouse neuroblastoma cells. These results indicate

that the Epigenetics inhibitor three amino acid substitutions affect efficiency of cell-to-cell spread but not apoptosis-inducing ability, probably resulting in the distinct distributions of RC-HL and R(G 242/255/268) strain-infected cells in the mouse brain and, consequently, the different pathogenicities of these strains. Rabies is an infectious viral disease to which almost all mammals, including humans, succumb after severe neurological symptoms. The mortality rate is almost 100%. The etiological agent, rabies virus, belonging to the genus Lyssavirus of the family Rhabdoviridae, has an unsegmented negative-sense RNA genome of approximately 12 kilo-bases in length. The genome encodes five structural proteins: N, P, M, G and L proteins. The N, P and L proteins form a ribonucleoprotein complex together Resminostat with the RNA genome (1, 2). The N protein participates in encapsidation of genomic RNA. The L protein functions as an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, together with the P protein, which is known as a co-factor of the polymerase. Meanwhile, the M and G proteins are located in the viral envelope. The M protein plays an indispensable

role in budding of the progeny virus particles (3, 4), while the G protein forms spikes that project from the viral envelope and is responsible for binding to the receptor on the cell surface (5, 6). Among the viral proteins, the G protein is known to be a major determinant of viral pathogenicity (7–11). Some previous studies have shown that an amino acid substitution at position 333 in the G protein changes the pathogenicity: strains with Arg or Lys at that position kill adult mice after IC inoculation, whereas strains with other amino acids cause non-lethal infection (7, 12). A subsequent study demonstrated that a virulent strain with Arg at position 333 in the G protein spreads more rapidly in the mouse brain than does an attenuated strain with another amino acid residue, and that in vitro cell-to-cell spread of the virulent strain is more efficient than that of the attenuated strain (13).

An in vitro study demonstrated that BMP-2, BMP-6, BMP-7,

An in vitro study demonstrated that BMP-2, BMP-6, BMP-7, Midostaurin and BMP-15, not activin-A and GDF-9, decreased PCSK 6 gene expression in human

GC. FSH induced PCSK 6 mRNA in the presence of activin-A or GDF-9. GDF-3, which is an inhibitor of BMP cytokines, also induced PCSK 6 mRNA expression. PCSK 6, which is a critical factor to produce BMP cytokines, was suppressed with BMP stimulation in human GC, suggesting the presence of a negative feedback system in the follicular development process. “
“Schistosomiasis is the second most important parasitic disease in the world in terms of public health impact. Globally, it is estimated that the disease affects over 200 million people and is responsible for 200,000 deaths each year. The three major schistosomes infecting humans are Schistosoma mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. haematobium. Much immunological

research EPZ 6438 has focused on schistosomiasis because of the pathological effects of the disease, which include liver fibrosis and bladder dysfunction. This unit covers a wide range of aspects with respect to maintaining the life cycles of these parasites, including preparation of schistosome egg antigen, maintenance of intermediate snail hosts, infection of the definitive and intermediate hosts, and others. The unit primarily focuses on S. mansoni, but also includes coverage of S. japonicum and S. haematobium life cycles. Curr. Protoc. Immunol. 103:19.1.1-19.1.58. © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. “
“Lactic acid is the predominant acid present in the vagina. We evaluated the consequences of lactic acid, at physiological levels present in the vagina, on cytokine responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from 10 individuals in the presence or absence of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Preincubation of PBMCs in 15 mM lactic acid before the addition of lipopolysaccharide resulted in a 246% mean increase in interleukin-23 (IL-23) secretion over that released in the presence of lipopolysaccharide alone (P=0.0068). The lipopolysaccharide-induced production of tumor necrosis factor-α,

IL-6, IL-10 Bay 11-7085 and IL-12 was unaffected by lactic acid. IL-23 stimulation was not observed if the lactic acid was neutralized before its addition to the culture medium or if hydrochloric acid was substituted for lactic acid. In the absence of lipopolysaccharide, lactic acid did not stimulate the production of IL-23 or any of the other cytokines. The increase in IL-23 production was proportional to the lactic acid concentration over a 15–60 mM range. We conclude that at body sites characterized by lactic acid accumulation, such as in the human vagina, exposure to gram-negative bacteria results in selective IL-23 production, leading to a subsequent preferential stimulation of the Th17 T lymphocyte pathway.

Regarding how quickly changes in

recognition of HSP20 occ

Regarding how quickly changes in

recognition of HSP20 occur, we observe heterogeneous results in our patient’s population. These observations can reflect various factors, including antigenic stimulus, host genetic factors, cyst status, and the number of albendazole cycles or surgery. The Deforolimus purchase incidence of relapse increases with the length of follow-up (17,18). As the monitoring imaging findings during follow-up can be difficult, the events seen in ultrasound need to be matched more closely to immunological events because cysts often undergo relatively small changes that imaging cannot visualise (7). In our preliminary results, HSP20 demonstrated a very good performance as antigen marker for the serological follow-up of human

CE, by contrast to specific antibodies against hydatid fluid and AgB, that remain at high levels over long periods of time after curing (19). As we found weak percentage of patients with CE positive in HSP20-IB, we suggest that more work needs to elucidate the diagnostic potential of E. granulosus HSP20. We postulate that the different antibody specificity showed by the 34 and 50 kDa bands can be explained by the presence of conformational epitopes belonging to the same antigenic molecule in our experimental conditions (polymerisation). As the antibody response to HSP20 could fluctuate over time, the feasibility of quantitative FK228 nmr antibody measurement, such as ELISA, will be addressed in future investigations. It will also be interesting to assess the performance of HSP20 in comparison with other antigens that have been suggested for similar purposes, such

as recP29 (20) and B2t (21). We might anticipate a synergistic outcome by combination of such tools. In conclusion, a comprehensive strategy of proteomic identification combined with further immunological validation appears to provide very useful information on the host–parasite relationship and its associate proteins ensuring the development of novel E. granulosus biomarkers. The identification of panels of parasite Adenosine antigens that elicit an antibody response may have utility in CE screening, diagnosis or in establishing prognosis, and in immunotherapy against the disease. This work was supported by a research grant from the Italian Ministry of Health (Project n°. 8ABF/8). “
“Type 1 diabetes is associated with T-cell responses to β-cell antigens such as GAD65. Single T-cell epitopes have been investigated for immune monitoring with some success, but multiple epitopes may be required to fully characterize responses in all subjects. We used a systematic approach to examine the diversity of the GAD65-specific T-cell repertoire in subjects with DRB1*04:01 haplotypes. Using class II tetramers, we observed responses to 15 GAD65 epitopes, including five novel epitopes. The majority were confirmed to be processed and presented.

Interestingly, taurine

Interestingly, taurine this website depletion has been found to decrease muscle force output [46], corroborating the link between amino acid level and proper tissue function both in vivo and ex vivo. Accordingly, taurine levels fluctuate in mdx muscles in relation to the disease phase, with compensatory increases being suggested after acute degenerative phases and glucocorticoid treatment [28–30]. Future studies will further evaluate the role of taurine as a pathology modifier as well as a biomarker. However, the significant increase in amino acid content presently

observed on combined treatment shows that taurine can be effectively up-taken by fast-twitch muscle, in line with previous observations [45], and that this mechanism may account for the amelioration of excitation-contraction coupling. However, the possible muscle-type and organ-specific actions also have to be taken into account in the overall action of taurine. The drug combination did not lead to any advantage in terms of plasma levels of CK vs. the two drugs alone, while the beneficial effect of taurine on LDH was

attenuated. The lack of effect of PDN on muscular enzyme activity in dystrophic subjects has been described, but no data are available about taurine. However, taurine supplementation has been found to reduce plasma levels of LDH and CK in an isoprenaline-induced cardiomyopathy Fulvestrant solubility dmso model [47]. Thus, our result suggests that taurine controls metabolic distress in exercised dystrophic animals, being less effective on

a marker of sarcolemmal weakness such as CK. The correlation between muscle damage and level of muscular enzymes in the blood stream is puzzling. In fact, many drugs acting as anti-inflammatory and/or antioxidant, or strategies able to enhance Histone demethylase dystrophin, may exert a membrane protective effect leading to a significant reduction of CK, in parallel with histological evidence of decreased dystro-pathology signs [15,33,35]. However, in the absence of a specific membrane effect of the drug, an increased muscular activity due to an improved muscle function may also maintain elevated levels of CK. Thus, the evaluation of the histology profile was of importance to better verify the outcome of the present treatments. Interestingly, the combined drug treatment did not show any clear advantage on histology profile, with effects rather similar, if not smaller, than those observed by PDN alone. Thus, the results suggest that the amelioration of in vivo and ex vivo functional parameters are indeed related to the increased levels of the aminoacid and its action on calcium homeostasis, while the protection against dystrophic degeneration is mainly due to the action of PDN.

An alteration in the Treg cell population might correspond

An alteration in the Treg cell population might correspond

to the diminishment of the tumour mass in patients with cancer and could therefore be a useful marker of the intensity of the selective suppression of the host immune system and also of the degree of radicalism of a procedure. Certainly, it is well known that in order for anti-cancer therapy to succeed the proper immune response against cancer cells must be restored. Furthermore, monitoring the level of selective immune system suppression during cancer therapy might yield information that would support a decision to supplement standard therapy by immunotherapy or to increase the degree of radicalism of the applied therapy. Method of study  We examined the Treg cell populations in the peripheral blood of a group of patients treated surgically for ovarian cancer. In each patient, Rapamycin mw the peripheral blood samples were collected both prior to and 1 day after the surgical procedure, and then again 5 days after the procedure. The presence of regulatory T cells in the samples was analyzed by means of flow cytometry. Results  In our study, the percentages of FOXP3+ cells in the subpopulation of CD4+ T lymphocytes found in the peripheral blood of the patients before the surgical intervention were statistically

significantly higher than those observed in the peripheral blood of these same patients after the surgical procedure. Conclusion  It would seem that the alteration in the Treg cell selleck chemical subpopulation could be a key factor in determining the status of the tumour microenvironment. Most likely, it could provide information about whether the proper level of anti-cancer immune response could be restored. The possibility of restoring the immune response may directly correspond to the degree of radicalism of the surgical intervention. “
“Like many other complex human disorders of unknown aetiology, autoimmune-mediated type 1 diabetes may PAK5 ultimately be controlled via a therapeutic approach that combines multiple agents, each with differing modes of action. The numerous advantages of such a strategy include the ability to minimize toxicities

and realize synergies to enhance and prolong efficacy. The recognition that combinations might offer far-reaching benefits, at a time when few single agents have yet proved themselves in well-powered trials, represents a significant challenge to our ability to conceive and implement rational treatment designs. As a first step in this process, the Immune Tolerance Network, in collaboration with the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation, convened a Type 1 Diabetes Combination Therapy Assessment Group, the recommendations of which are discussed in this Perspective paper. Type 1 diabetes (T1D), one of the most common autoimmune diseases, results from the progressive destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β cells by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.