2). Thus, there was no evidence of a particular chronological pattern in the order of developing the three complications. Despite the lack of a predictable sequence of clinical events, all patients without hepatic encephalopathy had about a 25% risk of developing a complication within 1 year after entry into a given complication category, and learn more a 50% risk of developing one within 5 years (Fig. 2). We found that Danish patients with alcoholic cirrhosis most frequently presented either with ascites alone (55%) or without complications (24%). The presence and type of complications were strong predictors of 1-year mortality,

which ranged from 17% for patients without complications to 85% for patients with hepatic encephalopathy. The risk of new complications was similar for all patients.

Complications did not develop in any particular chronological MI-503 datasheet sequence, suggesting that the clinical course of alcoholic cirrhosis is a random series of clinical events and not a predictable accumulation of complications. Our risk estimates were based on complete follow-up of a population-based patient sample under specialist care and thus are likely to generalize to alcoholic cirrhosis patients in other settings, particularly given that treatment guidelines in Western countries were already established at the beginning of our study period and follow similar principles. However, the risk estimates could

be biased if some patients did not have cirrhosis or did not have the complications. This is unlikely, based on a study of Danish alcohol-abusing men which showed that clinical cirrhosis diagnoses have a high positive predictive value when validated against biopsy findings.26 Moreover, it is highly plausible that all first-time episodes of evident ascites, Tyrosine-protein kinase BLK variceal bleeding with hematemesis, and overt hepatic encephalopathy were recorded in the medical charts. The 55% prevalence of ascites at cirrhosis diagnosis among patients in our study exceeds the 30%–40% prevalence estimated in most previous studies, whereas the prevalence of the other two complications is similar to that reported in those studies.3, 6, 7, 10 The reasons for the higher prevalence of ascites in our study are unclear. A still higher prevalence was found in a Norwegian study based on 100 patients with alcoholic cirrhosis seen in a single medical department in 1984–1988.9 That study reported a 67% prevalence of ascites and a 34% prevalence of variceal bleeding at the time of cirrhosis diagnosis, and those high prevalences might be explained by selective inclusion of patients who were referred to a specialist department because of advanced disease. Our study, by contrast, was population-based and therefore not vulnerable to such an inclusion bias.

Data regarding therapy for CHC patients with occult HBV are limited and based on small case numbers. However, the available information does not support occult HBV alone as a major factor that influences rates of SVR. Therefore, universal screening of HBV DNA by PCR for CHC patients before the initiation of antiviral therapy is not recommended but should be considered in selected cases. “
“Aim: 

This study investigated the correlation between remnant spleen volume after splenectomy (SPX) and the degree of hepatic steatosis and/or inflammation. Methods:  Male Sprague–Dawley rats Microbiology inhibitor were fed HF food and divided into three groups: sham-operation (Sham) group, a hemisplenectomy (H-SPX) group, and a total-splenectomy (T-SPX) group. Serum was collected and livers removed 12 weeks after surgery. We measured serum lipid markers and evaluated liver changes by comparing the three groups. Additionally, we examined liver changes 24 weeks after SPX. Results:  Serum triglyceride and free fatty acid levels after SPX were higher than those of sham controls,

and a significant difference was found between T-SPX and the other groups (P < 0.05 for each). Increased intrahepatic fat accumulation was shown in SPX rats along with lower residual spleen volume; this fat accumulation after SPX was accelerated in rats at 24 weeks. Additionally, liver inflammatory changes, including an increase in the Kupffer cell population and pro-inflammatory cytokine production, as well as a high level of oxidative stress, were observed in the liver sections from SPX rats, which correlated significantly with less volume mTOR inhibitor of the residual spleen. Also, an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine content and a decrease in anti-inflammatory cytokine content were shown in the residual spleen from H-SPX rats, as compared to those of sham controls (P < 0.05 for each). Conclusion:  These results indicate the importance of preserving splenic tissue. This residual spleen may play an MG-132 in vivo important role in preventing the progression from diet-induced hepatic steatosis to steatohepatitis. “
“Hepatic

steatosis is an important parameter to assess in chronic liver disease patients. The controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) assesses liver steatosis using transient elastography. To determine the accuracy of CAP for evaluation of hepatic steatosis in chronic hepatitis B virus (CHBV)-infected, chronic hepatitis C virus (CHCV)-infected, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) patients and to determine the influence of etiology on the diagnostic accuracy of CAP. One hundred forty-six CHBV patients, 108 CHCV-infected patients and 63 patients with NAFLD, who underwent both liver biopsy and successful CAP measurements within the study period, were assessed. Area under the receiver operating characteristics was used to evaluate performance of CAP for diagnosing steatosis compared with biopsy.

However, Gram-negative bacterial families Enterobacteriaceae

and Bacteroidaceae and phylum Verrucomicrobia were significantly more abundant in SFBL. Trichrome staining of liver sections revealed characteristic PSC-like lesions in 40% of SFBL mice, consisting of intrahepatic periductal fibrosis, compared to 0% of sham mice. CD11c+CD-11b+PDCA1- myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) were significantly increased in SFBL livers with PSC-like lesions (SFBL-PDF) compared to SFBL livers without PSC-like lesions (SFBL-NON-PDF). Although the expression of co-stimulatory markers CD80 and CD86 in hepatic mDCs did not show significant difference between SFBL-PDF and SFBL-NON-PDF mice, MHC-I expression was significantly increased and MHC-II expression was significantly decreased in hepatic Palbociclib mDCs in SFBL-PDF mice. Compared to SFBL-NON-PDF and sham mice, SFBL-PDF mice had significantly increased CD8+CD44+ T cells and CCL3 and CCL4 mRNA levels in the liver, and significantly increased CCL3 and CCL4 in serum. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that creation of SFBL induced quantitative and qualitative changes in gut microbiota, contributing to the development of PSC-like lesions in NOD.B6Abd3 mice. The development of PSC-like lesions in NOD.B6Abd3 may be triggered Cytoskeletal Signaling inhibitor by the activation and expansion

of liver mDCs, which in turn recruit activated CD8+ T cells via T cell chemoattractant chemokines CCL3 and CCL4. Disclosures: Jorge A. Bezerra – Grant/Research Parvulin Support: Molecular Genetics Laboratory, CHMC The following people have nothing to disclose: Qingqing Wang, Vijay Saxena, Bin Wang, Lili Miles, Marnie A. Ryan, William M. Ridgway, Jaimie D. Nathan Background Bile salt (BS) toxicity plays an important role in cholestatic

liver injury. Adaptive mechanisms are operational to reduce hepatic toxicity and promote urinary elimination of BS in cholestasis. Following up on the observation that ectopic FGF19 expression in the human cholestatic liver comprises an adaptive strategy to reduce BS synthesis (Hepatology 49:1228), we now explore the human hepatic transcriptome to gain further insight into molecular networks affected by cholestasis. Methods Total RNA was isolated from liver biopsies of patients with pancreatic tail cancer or benign liver tumors without cholestasis (controls,n=9), patients with cholestasis due to periampullary malignancies (cholestatic,n=9), and initially jaundiced patients with periampullary malignancies receiving pre-operative biliary drainage (drained,n=10). mRNA and miRNA expression profiles were determined using Agilent arrays. Results Median total BS and bilirubin level was 194 and 186 μmol/L, resp., in cholestatic patients, with notable elevation of cholestatic injury markers (GGT 1055U/L, AP 540U/L) and transaminases (AST 232U/L, ALT 388U/L). In patients receiving pre-operative biliary drainage total BS, bilirubin and transaminases were within the normal range.

6%, 26.9%, 18.6%, 13.6%, 10.2% and 10.1% respectively with overlaps. Irrespective of the symptoms, endoscopic peptic ulcer disease was found

in 6.5% patients. Major indication for biopsy had been presence of endoscopic gastropathies which included antral gastritis, pangastritis, gastric ulcers and gastric carcinomas. Gastric carcinomas were found in 0.6% of the total cohort. Gastric ulcers and gastric carcinomas phosphatase inhibitor library are found in 3.3% and 2.0% respectively among chronic antral gastritis patients. Conclusion: Rapid urease test had a low correlation with antral gastritis due to multiple reasons. The significance of antral gastritis with symptoms was unclear perhaps with exception dyspepsia, gastric ulcers and gastric carcinomas. Prevalence of peptic ulcer disease and gastric malignancies was low with chronic antral gastriris in this series. Key Word(s): 1. Helicobacter pylori; 2. biopsy urease test; 4. antral gastritis; EMD 1214063 price Presenting Author: YONG XIE Additional Authors: KE WANG, NANJIN ZHOU, GUOHUI XUE, DONGSHENG LIU, JING YU, BEN WANG Corresponding Author: YONG XIE Affiliations: Digestive Disease Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University; Institute of Medical Sciences of Jiangxi province; Digestive Disease Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang,

China Objective: Helicobacter pylori outer-membrane proteins (hom), especially learn more the homB gene, have been suggested as a novel virulence factor. However, few studies has been conducted in China regarding the association between these genes

and clinical outcome. In this study homA and homB gene were detected, to determine whether the homA and homB associated with clinical outcome of H. pylori infection, especially with gastric cancer. Methods: Pre-separation of the 170 clinical H. pylori strains for resuscitation culture, and extraction its genomic DNA; PCR was performed to study the presence of the homA and homB. Results: In the 170 strains, among them, gastric cancer 28 strains, gastric ulcer 19 strains, duodenal ulcer 75 strains, gastritis 48 strains. The expression rate of homA in gastric cancer, gastric ulcer, duodenal ulcer and gastritis were 25.0% (7/28), 26.3% (5/19), 32.0 (24/75), 31.3 (15/48), respectively; no significant difference among four groups (P > 0.05). The expression rate of homB in gastric cancer, gastric ulcer, duodenal ulcer and gastritis were 78.6% (22/28), 78.9% (15/19), 86.7 (65/75), 89.6 (43/48), respectively; no significant difference among four groups (P > 0.05). Conclusion: In all digestive diseases homB was highly expressed, especially in gastritis. Hom genes might not be a good indicator for disease prediction in the China. More studies are needed to confirm these results and determine the function of intermediate length hom. Key Word(s): 1. Helicobacter pylori; 2. Digestive diseases; 3.

Because the effect of competition on distributional patterns is more easily detected at a smaller rather than at larger spatial scales (Wiens, 1989; Prinzing et al., 2002; Soberón & Nakamura, 2009), we here study local co-occurrence of the two salamander species

within contact zones. If interspecific competition affects the distribution of the two species, then they should have spatial ranges that do not strongly overlap at local scale (Hofer, Bersier & Borcard, 2004). To further study whether interspecific interactions restrict the species’ ranges and to better understand patterns of local co-occurrence of these parapatric salamanders within their contact zones, we use site-occupancy models (MacKenzie et al., 2002; MacKenzie, Bailey & Nichols, 2004; Yackulic et al., in press) to study species–habitat relationships by comparing syntopic LDK378 nmr and allotopic occurrences at a local scale in Switzerland. Specifically, we aim (1) to identify the habitat predictors for the species’ distributions within the contact zones and

(2) to test whether the presence of one species affects the occupancy probability of the other species. Based on previous research on parapatric salamanders where both abiotic and biotic factors were important, we expect (1) that the alpine and fire salamanders show dissimilar species–habitat relationships and (2) that the presence of one species negatively affects the presence of the other. Salamandra salamandra is widely distributed throughout western and central Europe, while S. atra NVP-AUY922 purchase is restricted to sub-montane and montane areas of the central and eastern European and the Dinaric Alps (Guex & Grossenbacher, 2004; Thiesmeier & Grossenbacher, 2004). click here In the European Alps,

the geographic range of S. atra coincides with a distribution gap of S. salamandra but small contact zones with few localities of local syntopic co-occurrence are known (Klewen, 1986; Guex & Grossenbacher, 2004; Thiesmeier & Grossenbacher, 2004). Across its large distribution in geographic space, S. salamandra occurs in a wide range of different habitats. However, within the contact zones of the parapatric range margins, it (S. s. terrestris and S. s. salamandra) often inhabits deciduous forests with small streams, a habitat also used by alpine salamanders (S. a. atra) (Klewen, 1986; Thiesmeier & Grossenbacher, 2004). Streams are used by female S. salamandra for the deposition of larvae, which here remain until metamorphosis. In contrast, S. atra is viviparous and does not require water bodies for reproduction (Guex & Grossenbacher, 2004). While reproductive modes are different, the two species both are primarily nocturnal and remain most of the time under shelter, while their foraging and reproductive activity is highly dependent on rainy weather conditions (Guex & Grossenbacher, 2004; Thiesmeier & Grossenbacher, 2004).

HB tumors exhibiting weak expression of KRT19 show low levels of miR-492, whereas tumors with increased levels of KRT19 exhibit enhanced expression of miRNA (Fig. 4A). Accordingly, a strong correlation of miR-492 with its proposed gene of origin, KRT19, was evident (Fig. 4B). In contrast, no significant relation with the pseudogene of KRT19 was observed (Fig. 4C). Other Torin 1 than in HB cell lines, the association of PLAG1 expression with miR-492 was not comparably reflected in HB tumors (data not shown). A possible association of miR-492 expression with different tumor stages was addressed by categorizing the available tumor samples into two groups. Group 1 comprises the nonmetastasized standard-risk

patients with stages I, II, and IIIA according to the German

staging system (tumors resectable with maximal a microscopic rest) (n = 13). Patients in group 2 are high-risk (HR) patients, all stage IV with distant metastases (n = 13). HR stage IIIB nonresectable local tumors were not available for analysis. Higher stages of tumor samples (group 2) expressed significantly higher levels of miR-492 and KRT19 compared to group 1 (Fig. 4D,E). In contrast, expression of the pseudogene was not able to differentiate between these two groups (Supporting Table 4). We also utilized our HB tumor samples to evaluate the presumption that regulation of a putative target by direct interaction with selleck miR-492 might be reflected by a down-regulation of respective miRNA targets (Fig. 5A). Such an inverse correlation was indeed found as being significant between miR-492 and BAAT (Fig. 5B). The relation to other predicted targets HSD3B1, TCF21, ST6GAL1, and ALB did not reach Casein kinase 1 statistical significance (Fig. 5A), although a trend towards their lower expression was noted in high miR-492-expressing tumors (negative rho value). Next we generated a correlation matrix between clinicopathological features of HB tumors with miRNA-492 expression and miRNA-492-associated genes (Supporting Table 4). A highly significant finding was the association of metastatic disease with higher

expression of miR-492 and KRT19 (Fig. 4D,E). Predicted miR-492 target genes, however, did not discriminate between these groups. Additionally, tumors with predominantly fetal phenotype appeared to express high mRNA levels of the predicted miR-492 targets BAAT and GDA (Fig. 6A,B). Other significant associations such as lack of β-catenin mutation with high miR-492 and KRT19 expression as well as mixed HB histological subtype and worse outcome with high KRT19 expression were noted, but only based on four to five HB cases (Supporting Table 4). We aimed to identify biologically relevant miRNAs involved in HB genesis by analyzing miRNA regulation in a defined oncogenetically disrupted pathway of HB. By interfering with the signaling pathway of the oncogene PLAG1, which is commonly dysregulated in HB, we unraveled a primate-specific key miRNA, hsa-miR-492, as most strongly influenced by PLAG1.

Activation of the acidic sphingomyelinase (ASM) has been shown to be involved in HSC activation. In the present study we investigated whether treatment with the ASM inhibitor, amitriptyline (TCA), could prevent and/or reverse fibrosis induced in mice by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Mice were treated with CCl4 for 8 weeks to induce fibrosis. Concurrently, mice received drinking water with or without 180 mg/L TCA. Mice receiving TCA in the

water had decreased hepatic collagen deposition and reduced liver mRNA expression of the fibrogenic mediators, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1, collagen and tumor necrosis factor-α. TCA Metformin treatment also reduced HSC activation determined by α-smooth muscle actin staining. In a separate set of experiments, mice were treated with CCl4 for 5 weeks prior to treatment with TCA, to test whether TCA had any effect on established fibrosis. Remarkably, in mice with established fibrosis, treatment with TCA significantly reduced collagen deposition, HSC activation,

and prevented portal hypertension and improved hepatic architecture. Treatment of isolated HSC in vitro with TCA completely inhibited TGF-β1-induced collagen expression and platelet-derived growth factor-β-β-induced proliferation. The data suggest that ASM is a critical signaling component in HSC for the development of liver fibrosis and represents Natural Product Library order an important therapeutic target. “
“Glycerol phenylbutyrate is under development for treatment of urea cycle disorders (UCDs), rare inherited metabolic disorders manifested by hyperammonemia and neurological impairment. We report the results of a pivotal Phase 3, randomized, Gemcitabine chemical structure double-blind, crossover trial comparing ammonia control, assessed as 24-hour area under the curve (NH3-AUC0-24hr), and pharmacokinetics during treatment

with glycerol phenylbutyrate versus sodium phenylbutyrate (NaPBA) in adult UCD patients and the combined results of four studies involving short- and long-term glycerol phenylbutyrate treatment of UCD patients ages 6 and above. Glycerol phenylbutyrate was noninferior to NaPBA with respect to ammonia control in the pivotal study, with mean (standard deviation, SD) NH3-AUC0-24hr of 866 (661) versus 977 (865) μmol·h/L for glycerol phenylbutyrate and NaPBA, respectively. Among 65 adult and pediatric patients completing three similarly designed short-term comparisons of glycerol phenylbutyrate versus NaPBA, NH3-AUC0-24hr was directionally lower on glycerol phenylbutyrate in each study, similar among all subgroups, and significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the pooled analysis, as was plasma glutamine. The 24-hour ammonia profiles were consistent with the slow-release behavior of glycerol phenylbutyrate and better overnight ammonia control.

Clinical signs or elevated

serum aminotransferases may vary over time or may be absent in patients with advanced cirrhosis.2, 4 Ultrasound (US) is widely used5-8 but may not distinguish liver fibrosis from steatosis.8 Although these tests are widely employed in CFLD evaluation, their value in predicting significant liver disease has not been determined to date by a prospective study. Liver biopsy is not widely used and has not been systematically evaluated in this clinical Proteasome inhibitor context. There are perceived but poorly tested issues of sampling error in CFLD, and only limited studies have included histology in diagnosis, management, or the study of putative therapies.8-10 However, liver pathology is being characterized in CFLD, and the importance of hepatic fibrogenesis is generating interest in the role of liver biopsy in clinical

practice. The CF transmembrane regulator protein is expressed in the cholangiocyte.11 Altered biliary transport12 appears to lead to focal obstruction of bile flow, retention of toxic bile acids,13 up-regulation of key chemokines,13 selleck chemical induction of hepatic stellate cell chemotaxis and proliferation, and peribiliary fibrogenesis,13, 14 which is the key event leading to the pathognomonic focal biliary fibrosis Rho of CFLD.14 Some but not all cases progress to multilobular biliary cirrhosis via bile duct and hepatocyte injury and active fibrogenesis along the expanding

scar interface13, 14; this is reflected also by the appearance of potential biomarkers in the serum.12, 13, 15, 16 Recent studies have suggested that the Z allele of the serpin peptidase inhibitor clade A member 1 gene is a risk factor for cirrhosis in CF, although the role of this and other potential genetic modifiers in CFLD requires further mechanistic evaluation.17 Here we evaluate dual-pass liver biopsy and the commonly used clinical tools available to clinicians when they are confronted with a patient with suspected CFLD. We look at the ability of the latter to predict hepatobiliary fibrosis on biopsy, and we compare the value of biopsy to the value of clinical modalities currently used to predict adverse outcomes (i.e., PHT and/or liver failure) and mortality over prolonged clinical follow-up (up to 12 years). We hypothesized that hepatic fibrosis on biopsy best predicts clinically significant CFLD and that the evaluation of dual-pass liver biopsy pairs improves diagnostic accuracy.

2C). STAT5 binding to the Socs2 gene promoter served as a positive control. Western blot Selleckchem ABT737 analyses confirmed the reduction of NOX4 in Stat5−/− MEFs (Supporting Fig. 2D). NOX4 and BIM levels were increased

in Stat5−/−/Stat5A MEFs compared with parental Stat5−/− MEFs, further supporting that STAT5 directly controls expression of these genes (Supporting Fig. 2E). Expression of Puma and Bim was STAT5-dependent and under GH control in MEFs (Supporting Fig. 3A). Western blot analyses confirmed the reduction of PUMA and BIM in Stat5−/− MEFs (Supporting Fig. 2D). Overexpression of STAT5A in Stat5−/− MEFs further increased Puma and Bim mRNA levels (Supporting Fig. 4A), and GH-dependent induction of Puma and Bim expression was observed in Stat5−/−/Stat5A MEFs but not in Stat5−/− MEFs carrying an empty control retrovirus (Supporting Fig. 4B). Tyrosine phospho-STAT5 was detected in GH-stimulated Stat5+/+ MEFs (Supporting Fig. 3C), and elevated levels were observed in Stat5−/−/Stat5A MEFs (Supporting Fig. 3D). Levels of phospho-p53 were also increased in Stat5−/−/Stat5A MEFs compared with

parental Stat5−/− MEFs (Supporting Fig. 2E). Puma as a p53 target gene might be regulated by STAT5/p53 signaling. One GAS motif was identified at position −605 in the Puma gene, and two conserved GAS motifs were identified at positions −3684 and −540 in the Bim gene (Supporting Fig. 4C). ChIP analyses in Stat5+/+ MEFs confirmed GH-induced STAT5 binding to these GAS motifs (Supporting Fig.

Carfilzomib mw 4C). Binding to the Socs2 gene promoter served as a positive control. To explore the mechanistic links between phospho-p53 and expression of a subset of p53 target genes, we analyzed Stat5−/− and Stat5−/−/Stat5A MEFs. Expression of Bax, Fas, Noxa, and Ataf was increased in Stat5−/−/Stat5A MEFs compared with Stat5−/− Phospholipase D1 MEFs carrying an empty control retrovirus (Supporting Fig. 5). Expression of the p53 gene was not changed in Stat5−/−/Stat5A MEFs compared with Stat5−/− MEFs. To determine whether ROS generation is under direct STAT5/NOX4 control, Stat5+/+ and Stat5−/− MEFs were cultured and assayed for ROS using DCF-DA and lucigenin. DCF fluorescence, an indicator of ROS, was stronger in Stat5+/+ MEFs than in Stat5−/− MEFs (Supporting Fig. 6A). Treatment with H2O2 further increased the production of ROS in Stat5+/+ MEFs compared with Stat5−/− MEFs (Supporting Figs. 6A and 7A). The lucigenin chemiluminescent assays established that STAT5 deficiency led to a reduced level of intracellular ROS in MEFs (Supporting Fig. 6B). Treatment of Stat5+/+ MEFs with diphenylene iodonium (DPI), a NOX inhibitor, reduced ROS levels (Supporting Figs. 6A and 7B). Although DPI inhibits several NOX members, NOX4 is the only one expressed at appreciable levels in liver tissue. This suggests that ROS in MEFs originates from NOX4.

After isolations, the cultures were first starved for 48 h in darkness, followed by dilution (1:10) with TYG broth and incubated for another 2 h in darkness. Then, 1 mg · mL−1 cycloserine (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) was added and incubated in darkness at 28°C for 24 h. Subsequently, cultures were plated on BG11 or NC agar plates. After ~2 weeks, the colonies on plates were isolated for subculture and further purification to axenic status (Vaara et al. 1979). The axenic isolates were cultured in liquid medium, cyanobacteria in BG11 and chlorophytes in NC medium, by shaking at 28 ± 1°C under illumination of 75 mol photons · m−2 · s−1 with light:dark photoperiod

of 14:10 h.

Four axenic BAY 80-6946 solubility dmso cultures, a cyanobacterium, Leptolyngbya boryana (Gomont) Anagnostidis and Komárek (IR-01), and three chlorophytes, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Protease Inhibitor Library supplier P.A. Dangeard (MI-01), Chlorella vulgaris Beijerinck (SLE-01), and Klebsormidium flaccidum (Kützing) P.C. Silva, K.R. Mattox and W.H. Blackwell (SLE-02) were used for this study (Fig. S1 in the Supporting Information). These strains are known to be widespread terrestrial strains (Casamatta et al. 2005, Li and Brand 2007, Rindi et al. 2008). L. boryana and K. flaccidum have a filamentous morphology, while C. reinhardtii and C. vulgaris are coccoid, single cells. The identification of these organisms was based Sulfite dehydrogenase on

their morphology and DNA sequences. The DNA of the studied strains were extracted using the phenol–chloroform protocol (Saunders 1993). Amplification was carried out by means of PCR as described by Sherwood and Presting (2007), using primers pair p23SrV_f1 and p23SrV_r1, flanking Domain V of the 23S plastid rDNA gene fragment in eukaryotic algae and cyanobacteria. The PCR products were visualized on 1% agarose gel stained with EtBr and further purified, using the Qiagen PCR purification kit (Stratagene, Santa Clara, CA, USA). DNAs were sequenced commercially in both directions, and ambiguous bases were checked and altered using the BioEdit program. Sequences were compared to known cultured and environmental sample sequences using the BLAST search tool on the NCBI website (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). The consensus sequences were then deposited at NCBI under the accession numbers: JX877619, JX877620, JX877621, and JX877624. All the strains were archived and available in the Phycological Laboratory, the Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taiwan. RWC is used to measure the water-retention capacity of cells. For measurement, 250 mL of cultures were filtered through a cellulose acetate filter (pore size of 0.45 μm; Sartorius, Göttingen, Germany) under reduced pressure. The filters were placed in an oven (60°C) to dry.