Thirdly and most importantly, we believe it is unlikely that children were able to refrain entirely from reading because previous studies have shown that printed words induce semantic priming (and interference) effects in children with similar ages and reading expertise as the youngest subjects in our study, even if word primes are ignored

or presented briefly (Chapman et al., 1994, Ehri, 1976, Plaut and Booth, 2000, Rosinski, 1977, Rosinski et al., 1975, Simpson and Foster, 1986 and Simpson and Lorsbach, 1983). This strongly suggests that viewing single printed familiar words can automatically evoke meaning processing in childhood readers, even during visual tasks and when their reading fluency is relatively poor. A more likely possibility is therefore, that the neural mechanisms that translate word shape into sensorimotor meaning are still not fully developed by the 11th year of life. The occipito-temporal Everolimus mouse cortex only starts showing adult-like sensitivity for word forms at around the 14th year of life (Ben-Shachar, Dougherty, Deutsch, & Wandell, 2011), when measures of reading fluency also reach

adult levels (Wechsler, 2001). In line with the Interactive Specialisation theory of brain development BIBF 1120 ic50 (Johnson, 2011), this process likely reflects increasing neural sensitivity to word shapes locally, but might also involve the improvement of connectivity with remote sensorimotor representations distributed across the cortex. Support for this Interactive Specialisation framework comes from resting state fMRI studies showing increasing functional connectivity between various motor and occipitotemporal cortex areas associated with reading (Koyama et al., 2011), and more general decreases in local connectivity next and increases in long-range connectivity

across the brain until well into the teenage years (Dosenbach et al., 2010 and Fair et al., 2007). In adults, sensorimotor cortex responses to printed words depend heavily on task-context (Mahon and Caramazza, 2008, Pulvermueller, 2013 and Willems and Casasanto, 2011). For example, Devlin et al. (2005) showed that category-selective activation for printed tool and animal names in the fusiform gyrus was more pronounced during categorising (man-made or natural?), than during perceptual judging of word-length (longer or shorted than comparison line?). This task-dependency might be even stronger during childhood if communication between visual word form areas and sensorimotor representations of word meaning is less direct or efficient. Expert adult readers may spontaneously picture the sensorimotor properties of objects they are reading about, thus activating for example brain areas involved in action planning for tool names and areas involved in body and face processing for animal names.