These findings have raised legitimate concerns regarding the potential risks of neonatal vaccination against pathogens, namely that vaccination during neonatal

life when antigen presenting cells retain their foetal-like Th2-selectivity, may inadvertently compromise the capacity to develop effective and persistent Th1-polarised immunity. This concern has been supported by data from neonatal vaccination studies in mice [7] and [8] and studies in humans demonstrating a general type-2 polarisation of T-cell memory to certain vaccines other than Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) following infant priming [9], [10], [11], [12], [13] and [14]. As a result this issue continues to cast a shadow of doubt over the possibility of immunizing neonates. This is of a particular concern in neonates in resource poor countries as they especially FRAX597 cost are subjected to a high mortality rate from vaccine Ibrutinib preventable diseases. Moreover, neonatal immunisation is likely to improve overall vaccine coverage as mothers are more likely to come into contact with health services around the time of delivery [15] and [16].

Hence, neonatal immunisation might be more favourable than infant immunisation if proven to be safe and equally immunogenic. In 2008 alone, an estimated 0.9 million newborns died of sepsis or pneumonia [17]: a number that could be reduced by neonatal vaccination strategies. To study the immunological feasibility of pneumococcal vaccination in human newborns, CYTH4 we directly compared immune responses to PCV in newborns and older infants in Papua New Guinea (PNG):

continuing our previous published work on early vaccine responses at 3 months of age [18], memory T-cell responses to the vaccine protein carrier CRM197 were immuno-phenotyped and compared between the three groups at 9 months of age by means of in vitro cytokine response assays for all study participants, complemented with microarray studies comparing genome-wide T-cell related gene expression in a randomly chosen subgroup of children in the neonatal compared to the infant group (n = 25 per group). In addition, aiming to address the functionality of the memory T-cell responses, PCV-serotype specific IgG antibody titres were determined and studied in relation to in vitro vaccine protein carrier specific cytokine responses. The study area and population recruitment in PNG have been described elsewhere [18]. Briefly, pregnant women were recruited at the antenatal clinic of Goroka Hospital and in villages located within an hour’s drive of Goroka town. Inclusion criteria were the intention to remain in the study area for at least 2 years, a birth weight of at least 2000 g, no acute neonatal infection and no severe congenital abnormality.