It is notable that in this patient the only presenting complaint in the left groin was pain. Persistent postsurgical pain is a recognized complication of inguinal herniorrhaphy, and may be attributed to musculoskeletal causes, or to trauma or constrictive scarring of local nerves (Loos et al., 2009). Our observations here suggest that,

in the case of patients with implanted foreign bodies from herniorrhaphy, a low-grade chronic infection of biofilm etiology should also be kept selleck products in mind as a potential source of ongoing pain. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Ms Mary O’Toole in the preparation of this manuscript, and support from the Allegheny-Singer Research Institute. “
“Toll-like receptors (TLRs) see more signal the presence of pathogens and tissue injury, triggering the inflammatory process in macrophages. The goal of inflammation is to resolve the injury and return the body to homeostasis. MicroRNAs are an important group of regulators of TLR signaling and several are induced by TLRs in macrophages. These TLR-induced microRNAs target signaling components in the TLR pathway, thereby producing

a negative feedback loop, and they are therefore prime candidates for the initiation of repair. Importantly, their dysregualtion may be important for chronic inflammation, which in turn can lead to autoimmunity and cancer, as discussed in this Viewpoint. The first line of defense against pathogens is composed primarily of innate immune cells – specifically phagocytes (macrophages and polymorphonuclear neutrophils). Once the inflammatory response is initiated, the system is brought back to homeostasis by negative regulators. Since there is now ample evidence to indicate that dysregulation of innate immunity can give rise to a range of inflammatory diseases, elaborate control

mechanisms must exist to prevent its overactivation. These control mechanisms are likely to be triggered after the initial activation of innate immune receptors (such as the TLRs), their job being to restore the system to homeostasis. In the case of TLR activation, a large number of such controls have been identified, ranging from decoy receptors to phosphatases to deubiquinating enzymes 1. Recently, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged tuclazepam as key regulators of TLRs, particularly in macrophages, and it is highly likely that they fine-tune signaling in order to allow for resolution of the inflammatory process. miRNAs are typically small (21–22 nucleotides) noncoding RNAs, the majority of which are intergenic or intronic, although a minority of miRNAs are derived from protein-coding mRNAs 2. miRNAs form a complex with the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) producing miRISCs that bind to complementary 3′ UTRs of target genes and thereby repress translation of mRNA, promote degradation, or stabilize the target mRNA 2.