Importance of nAChRs in brain macrocircuits Communication between brain areas and between hemispheres relies on the conduction of the action potential along the axons. Brain axons can be myelinated or unmyelinated, with the latter displaying the slowest conduction velocity. Importantly, however, conduction

velocity of myelinated axons is limited by the diameter of the fibers and ranges between 3.5 m/s in the visual cortex to at most 29 m/s in the thalamocortical pathway.43-45 This implies that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for a distance of about 10 cm the propagation time ranges between 3.5 and 28 ms which is not negligible. Further complexity when considering the velocity of conduction is added when taking into account the different parameters dictating this velocity. Two determinant parameters are: (i) the physical properties of the axon with its diameter and space constant (the distance at which an electrical signal is attenuated by a factor of 2); and (ii) the membrane properties at the nodes of Ranvier. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical A wider expression of sodium channels in the node of Ranvier Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical yields a larger inward current during the action potential and a faster velocity of conduction. This is well illustrated by the slowing of the conduction velocity observed during local anesthesia46 by a compound such as lidocaine. Conduction velocity at the node of Ranvier also therefore depends on the presence of additional ion channels. Activation

of channels causing an increase in the membrane conductance reduces the efficiency of the sodium Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical channel effects. Activation of channels causing a depolarization of the node of Ranvier progressively inactivates the sodium channels, yielding a reduction in the sodium current and of the amplitude of the action potential. As it was shown that nAChRs are expressed at axonal level and are than present in human white matter,2,5,6 activation of these cationic receptors is expected to modulate conduction velocity. In agreement with this hypothesis, exposure Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to cholinergic drugs was shown to reduce conduction velocity of the habenulointerpeduncular pathway.47 This might be of clinical

relevance since Carfilzomib lesions of this pathway in rats produce anxiety and hyperlocomotor activity.48 Brain circuit dysfunction In spite of the major progress made in brain imaging, our knowledge about the timing of propagation and relevance of brain activities remains limited. While the use of fMRI has increased our knowledge about brain areas involved in a given set of functions, these techniques have a temporal resolution that is orders of magnitudes too slow with respect to the actual brain processes. Electroencephalography with a large number of scalp electrodes, or in some cases, with deep brain electrodes, provides a much better time resolution but its usefulness remains limited by the issue of spatial resolution.