GS constructed the mobilisable PAI II536 variant and performed the mobilisation and transconjugation experiments assisted by VS. BM and BH provided bacterial strains and constructs and supported the construction of the mobilisable PAI II536 variant, suitable recipient strains as well as mobilisation experiments. GS and UD wrote the manuscript assisted by BM, LE and JH. All authors

have read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background All organisms have evolved several defence systems in order to protect themselves against bacteria, fungi and viruses. Higher organisms have developed a complex network of humoral and cellular responses, called adaptive immunity. A second defence LY2835219 in vitro system, the innate immunity, consists of many components, including small peptides with a broad antimicrobial spectrum [1, 2]. The production of such proteins with antimicrobial activity is not limited to higher eukaryotes, but also found in microorganisms, including fungi. The diversity of these proteins is reflected in their mode of action and their species-specificity. Some of them form pores in the membrane, others are known to inhibit

cell wall synthesis or interfere with nucleic acids and their synthesis [3, 4]. They can be involved in the inhibition of protein synthesis or interfere with cell cycle control [3, 4]. A relatively new group of antimicrobial proteins secreted by filamentous AZD8186 order ascomycetes includes small, cationic and www.selleckchem.com/products/gant61.html MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit cysteine-rich proteins. So far, only few antifungal proteins have been characterized, namely AFP from Aspergillus giganteus, ANAFP from Aspergillus niger, PAF from Penicillium chrysogenum and NAF from Penicillium nalgiovense [[5–8]]. The mode of action of these proteins is not fully understood. Nevertheless, there is evidence, that their toxicity is mediated by interaction with distinct molecules or receptors at the outer layers of the cell, e.g. cell wall or plasma membrane. Deleterious effects can then be induced either by transmitting signals from the outer layers into the cell, or by internalization of the protein and interaction

with internal molecules [[9–15]]. Similar to substances that perturb the cell wall, such as caspofungin, congo red or calcofluor white (CFW) [10, 16], the A. giganteus antifungal protein AFP was found to modulate the cell wall composition by enhancing the expression of the α-1,3-glucan synthase A gene (agsA), possibly by the activation of the cell wall integrity pathway (CWIP), and inhibiting chitin synthesis in sensitive fungi [10]. This, however, stands in contrast to the mode of action of the P. chrysogenum antifungal protein PAF which fails to activate the CWIP [9]. However, the central players that trigger cell wall remodelling in AFP-sensitive fungi have not been investigated so far. Another mechanistic function of antifungal proteins is the interference with ion, especially Ca2+ ion homeostasis and signalling [[15, 17, 18]]. We could recently show that the P.