Furthermore, the biological requirements of domesticates and management structures associated with their propagation, tending, and harvesting can greatly influence our understanding of the impact of new species into the Balkans.

2 Prior to extinction in the 17th Century AD, aurochsen (Bos primigenius), ancestors of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) were found extensively across Europe. Aurochsen were most commonly associated with wooded landscapes, feeding primarily on plants such as grasses, leaves, and the branch tips of woody plants, but also likely in more open landscapes ( Clutton-Brock, 1999, Legge and Rowley-Conwy, 1988 and Van Vuure, 2005). The introduction GSK2656157 clinical trial of domesticated cattle to these areas likely had consequences for the wild populations. Although little is known about aurochsen population levels and distribution in the Balkans, introduced domesticated cattle may have competed with wild bovines for food. Once larger herds and agricultural fields became established, spatial segregation would have been greater: grazing areas more controlled, a greater infrastructure

in herd management (fences, barns, etc.) and aurochsen would be relegated into forest foraging niches. Based on stable isotope analyses, Noe-Nygaard et al. (2005) demonstrate that aurochsen in Scandinavia underwent a change in diet from foraging in open grassland settings to forested ecosystems during the Neolithic. Balasse et al. (1997) made a similar argument

for the Neolithic in the Paris Basin. There are some data, therefore, to suggest that the Ribociclib purchase introduction of domesticated PD-1 antibody inhibitor cattle into Europe shifted the primary foraging areas of aurochsen, allowing them to cohabitate for millennia due to their complementary adaptations. Although data are lacking for the Balkans, it is likely that similar shifts occurred in areas where larger numbers of cattle were kept. Required grazing area, reproduction data, and potential meat and milk production of cattle based on modern, unimproved breeds are presented in Table 3 (based largely on Dyson-Hudson and Dyson-Hudson, 1970, Gregg, 1988 and Russell, 1988; see also McClure et al., 2006, p. 209; Robb, 2007). These data show that on average a single cow requires ca. 1.5 ha (3.7 acres) of pasture (Bakels, 1982) or 1 ha (2.47 acres) of forested land per month for grazing (Bogucki, 1982). Dietary requirements for steers and castrated bulls do not vary too much from those of cattle. Genetic data on modern cattle, old breeds, and archeological samples indicate genetic diversity with the presence of descendants of multiple domestication centers in the Near East and Anatolia, and little if any interbreeding between introduced domesticated cattle and their local wild counterparts (Bradley and Magee, 2006).