0) to a final concentration of 1 mg/ml. 100 μl of the hyaluronic acid solution was incubated with 400 μl of the filter-sterilized supernatants of the wild types and mutants for 30 min at 37°C. One ml of a solution containing 2% NaOH and 2.5% cetramide (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, Sigma) was added to the Blasticidin S purchase reaction mixture. The turbidity of the insoluble

complex formed between cetramide and hyaluronic acid was measured at 400 nm [37]. The reduction in turbidity, reflecting the decrease in hyaluronic acid because of the activity of hyaluronidase, was calculated by comparing the turbidities of samples containing the supernatant of each culture with Combretastatin A4 controls containing BHI alone. The enzyme assays for all the enzymes were performed three times

from three different cultures of each strains. Cytotoxicity of C. perfringens supernatants for macrophages Macrophages were obtained from C57BL/6 male mice, 4–6 weeks old, which had ad libitum access to food and water. The maintenance, handling and sacrifice of mice were according to procedures approved by the NCTR Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Resident mouse peritoneal macrophages were harvested by peritoneal lavage, using 4 ml of supplemented DMEM medium, containing 5% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 100 μg/ml streptomycin sulfate, 100 units/ml penicillin G, 110 mg/L sodium pyruvate, and 2 mM glutamine. Red blood cells were removed by hypotonic lysis. The peritoneal exudate cells https://www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD1480.html were washed once with DMEM, plated and incubated at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2[33]. Floating cells were removed and the macrophages were incubated in DMEM, containing 10% Immune system BHI or filter-sterilized supernatants of

overnight cultures of wild types and mutants, for 18 h at 37°C in a CO2 incubator. A CytoTox 96® Non-Radioactive Cytotoxicity Assay Kit (Promega) was used to measure the toxicity of the mutants and wild type cultures for macrophages. The cytotoxicity of each absorbance unit of the cells of different strains was calculated by the amount of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) released from the macrophages. The differences in cytotoxicity due to the mutants and wild types were assessed using Student’s t-test. Morphological examination Colony morphology of the strains was compared after overnight growth on BHI plates. For cellular morphology, log phase grown cells were Gram stained and examined under the light microscope. DNA sequencing Several regulatory and toxin genes and enzymes from wild types and mutants were amplified and sequenced as previously described [29]. Results Transcriptional analysis by DNA microarray Using the genome sequences of C. perfringens strain 13 and strain ATCC 13124, microarray probes were designed for genome-wide transcriptional analysis of two fluoroquinolone-resistant C. perfringens strains, NCTRR and 13124R, and their wild types. Microarray analysis showed that a variety of genes were upregulated (≥ 1.