5b). These results indicate that IRAK-M, which was upregulated by gDNA, plays an important role as a negative regulator for TLR signaling, and it may be involved in gDNA-mediated tolerance. Inflammation is a frontline defense mechanism against infection and injury, restoring the body to homeostasis. Excessive expression of inflammatory cytokines, however, causes inflammatory diseases such as septic shock (Cook et al., 2004). To treat inflammatory diseases, researchers have tried to induce tolerance

against endotoxins that induce excessive inflammation. Several Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor reports have shown that bacterial cell wall components induce homologous tolerance (Sugawara et al., 1999; Lehner et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2001; Jacinto et al., 2002). Treatment of THP-1 cells with LPS or a-gDNA significantly increases the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine, TNF-α, illustrating the risk of pathogenic bacterial gDNA. We purified gDNA from L. plantarum, predicting that it would induce tolerance. Whereas p-gDNA did not click here stimulate much pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and showed low levels of cytotoxicity, p-gDNA efficiently inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α production from THP-1 cells. Further, p-gDNA reduced the expression of TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9, which induced the activation of NF-κB through the LPS signaling pathway, leading to the upregulation of inflammatory cytokines (Verstrepen

et al., 2008). The activation of MAPKs such as ERK1/2, JNK1/2 and p38 is necessary to mediate many macrophage functions, including the activation of various transcription

factors and the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (Payne et al., 1991; DeFranco et al., 1998). In addition, the LPS-induced activation of the MAPK pathways plays an important role in the NF-κB activation. In the present study, pretreatment of THP-1 cells with p-gDNA inhibited the phosphorylation of MAPKs and NF-κB. The expression of Grape seed extract IRAK-M by gDNA may also block the signaling transfer from IRAK4 to IRAK1, which reduces the downstream expression of TNF-α. Unlike a-gDNA and LPS, p-gDNA was prepared from a probiotic organism. p-gDNA did not induce the overexpression of inflammatory cytokines. The inhibitory effects of p-gDNA resulted from the complex mechanisms of (1) the inhibition of intercellular signaling pathways such as the MAPK and NF-κB pathways; (2) the reduction of sepsis-related PRRs such as TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9; and (3) the induction of IRAK-M. Accordingly, p-gDNA tolerance may offer an effective approach for the prevention and treatment of endotoxin-induced shock. This research was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through a National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korean government (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology) (KRF-2008-313-F00132). “
“Wolbachia are widespread in insects and can manipulate host reproduction. Nasonia vitripennis is a widely studied organism with a very high prevalence of Wolbachia infection.